The article introduces new materials on the history of jewelry production of native speakers of the Alakul culture. The analysis of foundry molds suggests a much greater variety of jewelry than it is represented by finds in burials. A variant of the technological scheme for manufacturing jewelry, the material for which could serve not only bronze, but also precious metals, is proposed.

Keywords: Bronze Age, Alakul culture, jewelry, jewelry production technology.

Introduction

The complex of ornaments is unanimously recognized by experts as one of the ethno-differentiating characteristics of traditional societies. This part of material culture combines two important qualities. On the one hand, we are dealing with a massive, highly stereotyped phenomenon, on the other-other factors (for example, functional) practically do not affect the appearance of products, minimizing the likelihood of convergent occurrence of similar shapes. However, in the presence of only archaeological sources, our ideas about the composition, the nature of the use of jewelry and other details are almost entirely based on the ritual (funerary) version of the costume and related attributes.

All this is directly related to the Bronze Age of the Southern Urals, especially to the Srubno-Andronovo period (XVIII-XVI centuries BC in the system of calibrated radiocarbon dates) [Epimakhov, 2007; Chernykh, 2008]. Moreover, differences in the typology of some types of jewelry (for example, earrings or nakosnikov) make it possible to make cultural attribution in contact regions [Kuzmina, 1994, p. 158-161; Obydennov and Obydennova, 1992, p. 120; Evdokimov and Usmanova, 1990; Usmanova, 2005; et al.]. The vast majority of finds relate to necropolises, and only rare examples of artifacts from collections from settlements (for example: [Epimakhov and Epimakhova, 2002, Fig. 2, 10-11]) and casting molds (Avanesova, 1991, Fig. 55] allow, from my point of view, at least partly to imagine the options of the headset that were not included in the funeral suit. The list of certificates of jewelry production is very short (see table; fig. 1): the settlements of Staro-Kumlyakskoye [Arkaim..., 2009, p. 186], Alekseevskoye [Krivtsova-Grakova, 1948, pp. 115-116, fig. 42], Yalym [Salnikov, 1967, p. 147, fig. 32, 24], Zamaraevskoye [Salnikov, 1954, p. 240; 1967, p. 338], Kamyshnoye I [Potemkina, 1985, pp. 114-115, fig. 39, 53, 5], an accidental find on the Sanarka River near the village of Verkhnyaya Sanarka (Chemyakin, 1976).

The work was carried out within the framework of the integration project of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Culture, Society and man in the Paleometallic epoch (the Urals and Western Siberia)".

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Jewelry casting molds in the settlements of the Southern Trans-Urals

Settlement

Coordinates

Source of information

Casting mold material

Matches among the decorations

Staro-Kumlyakskoe I

54°22 ' 13 "N 60°19' 14 " E

Markov, 1987; Arkaim..., 2009

Stone

Available for some negatives

Verkhne-Sanarskoe I

54°13 ' 24 "N 60°30' 53 " E

Chemyakin, 1976

Clay

Missing items

Kirzhakul I

55°31 ' 6 "NW 61°31' 24 " EW

Naumenko, 2003

Stone

Available for some negatives

Zamaraevskoe

56°9 ' 44 "N 63°16' 5 " E

Salnikov, 1954, 1967

Clay

There are

Ялым

54°46 '25" N

Salnikov, 1967

"

"

65°5 ' 20 " vd

Kamyshnoye I

55°5 '56" N

Potemkina Publ., 1985

Stone

Available for some negatives

65°10 ' 21 " vd

Ust-Suerskoe III

56°1 ' 2 "NW 65°50' 55 " EW

The same thing

Clay

Missing items

Alekseyevskoe

52°58 ' 48 "N 63°11' 34 " E

Krivtsova-Grakova, 1948

Stone

"

Fig. 1. Location of settlements where jewelry tools were found in the Trans-Urals. 1-Staro-Kumlyakskoye; 2 - Verkhne-Sanarskoye I; 3-Kirzhakul I; 4-Zamarayevskoye; 5 - Yalym; 6 - Kamyshnoye I; 7-Ust - Suerskoye III; 8-Alekseyevskoye. 1, 3, 6, 8 - stone products; 2, 4, 5, 7-clay products.

All the finds are directly or indirectly connected with the circle of Alakul antiquities*.

Some of the molds are made of stone (Alekseyevskoe, Staro-Kumlyakskoe, Kamyshnoye I), the rest are made of clay dough. E. V. Kupriyanova suggests that most of the finds are experimental samples and have never been used in practice [2008, p. 42]. The reason for a rather categorical conclusion was the small number of corresponding products on the monuments of the Bronze Age and the absence of traces of mold exploitation. Indeed, with rare exceptions, the negatives of objects do not have complete correspondences in archaeological materials, but other possible explanations should not be discounted. O. A. Krivtsova-Grakova suggested, for example, that the stone product found at the Alekseevsky settlement served as a stencil for minting metal plates [1948, p.115]. However, this version is unlikely to apply to clay molds.

Description of the find

The casting mold was found in 2007, 0.6 km south-east of the village. Techensky (Sosnovsky district, Chelyabinsk region) in the washout of the western shore of Lake Baikal. Kirzhakul. The find is associated with the layer of the Kirzhakul I settlement (Naumenko, 2003). Here on the square approx. 8,000 m2, four depressions were recorded and numerous lifting materials were collected. According to O. I. Naumenko, the ceramic complex had Alakul, Fedorovo-Cherkaskul and Mezhovo features. The artifact we are interested in clearly belongs to the circle of Alakul antiquities.

* The discovery of a jewelry casting mold during the study of the Tartas-1 burial ground in the Barabinsk forest-steppe is symptomatic in this regard [Molodin et al., 2005, p. 415].

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2. Foundry mold from the settlement of Kirzhakul I.

The product is a talc tile of irregular shape (88 × 64 mm, thickness 13-16 mm), with smoothed edges, trapezoidal in cross-section (Fig. 2). The side surfaces bear slightly smoothed traces of cutting with metal (?) 3, 4). Apparently, initially the master tried to give the product a shape close to an oval, but during operation (or manufacturing), scrapping occurred along one of the two recesses for casting trapezoidal rods. Apparently, it was this surface that was processed first, otherwise it is impossible to explain the fact that on the other side of the object, the molds for casting jewelry were not damaged.

Here are four negatives of different products, of which only two are clearly identifiable. One is designed for making a round plaque with a diameter of 25 mm with the image of a cross and concentric circles around the periphery (Fig. 3, 3).The cross is formed by triple lines converging at the central point (deepened by 3 mm). Most of the lines imitate fine coinage. Similar ornaments are known in the materials of the Stepnoye-7 burial ground (Kupriyanova, 2008, Fig. 16] and other Alakul monuments [74, 1-8; Sorokin, 1962, p. 163; Epimakhov and Epimakhova, 2004, Fig. 4; and others]. The differences relate to the diameter (as a rule, it is noticeably larger - up to 50 mm) and the technique of execution. Most of these ornaments are made from thin plates (foil up to 1 mm thick), probably with the help of a coinage or stamp (Fleck, 2009). Naturally, the reliefs of the front and back surfaces are duplicated. In our case, judging by the negative and the channel for pouring metal, the product was cast. The situation is similar with the rhombic suspension (26 × 13 × 1 mm), which is inferior in size and especially in massiveness to the majority of Alakul samples (Kupriyanova, 2008, Fig. 17; Usmanova, 2005, fig. 74, 32; Sorokin, 1962, p. 163].

Other negatives are less recognizable. One is designed for manufacturing four paired hemispherical plaques with a diameter of 6-7 mm, with radial segments along the periphery (Fig. 3, 2). If hemispherical plaques are by no means uncommon on Bronze Age monuments [Matveev, 1998, p. 249; Epimakhov and Epimakhova, 2004, figs. 4, 23-28], then their combination in one product is much less common in the Andronovo world (for example, in Russia).:

Fig. 3. Details of a casting mold from the settlement of Kirzhakul I.

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4. Foundry mold from the settlement of Staro-Kumlyakskoye I (according to [Arkaim..., 2009]).

[Matyushchenko, 2004, figures 418, 27-30; Umansky, Kiryushin, and Grushin, 2007, Figures 64, 20-23])*. It is even more difficult to find analogies to the methods of decoration and manufacturing (casting). It is possible, however, that the appearance of the final product significantly changed during the following technological operations. This idea is suggested by one of the negatives of the foundry mold from the Staro-Kumlyak settlement (Fig. 4), defined by the authors of the publication as "women's earrings in the form of flowers" [Arkaim..., 2009, p.186]**. With this interpretation, the paired plaques (on the negative) could later be used separately as independent decorative elements.

Even more mysterious is the negative, which consists of point depressions connected by a system of lines (Fig. 3, 1). Three lines form a cone-shaped shape, the base and upper third of which are intersected by segments. The endings of the segments are decorated with depressions that form cross-shaped figures***. The cone-shaped figure is crowned by a "rosette" consisting of a central and seven peripheral recesses****. The central one is somewhat asymmetrical and deepened significantly more than the others (5 mm). It could be used to combine the flaps of the mold. It should be noted that most of the depressions, apparently made with a single tool, have a rounded shape and a depth of 1.0-1.5 mm. Indentations in the borders of longitudinal lines look different. Judging by the elongated shape, they are carved with a thin metal blade.

Important for the interpretation of this element are the insignificant depth of the relief and the absence of a gate-channel for pouring metal, which in other cases is marked very clearly (2-5 mm relative to the plane). For this part, doubts about the functionality of the product as a mold should be recognized as valid. Nevertheless, this sector could serve as a base (matrix) for making jewelry from thin metal plates, but in the technique of stamping and/or coining rather than casting. In this case, for example, the central recess of the "socket" could serve to punch a through hole for hanging.

Interpretation issues

As can be seen from the above description, none of the negatives of ornaments on the main plane of the shape has complete correspondences in the excavation materials. There may be several explanations for this circumstance. First, we are dealing with only one sash, and the thickness of the final products (badges and pendants) could theoretically be achieved by combining with the second one. However, in this case it is difficult to ensure full filling of the entire space, since the viscosity of the metal must be very low (due to its own material properties or high temperature). Relatively low-melting pewter bronze was most often used for jewelry [Chernykh, 1970, pp. 139-141]. However, the final operations in this variant were forging and caulking the entire surface. Thus, casting into a complex shaped mold (which requires a strong warm-up) practically loses its meaning, it is much easier to use a plate.

The situation is different with precious metals that are well known to the local population [Salnikov,

* The given analogs, of course, are not complete, it is more about external similarity.

** The monument is located 1 km northeast of the village. Stary Kumlyak (Plastovsky district, Chelyabinsk region), on the left bank of the old riverbed of the Kumlyak River. Uplift collections from arable land included an extensive collection of Alakul, Cherkaskul, and Mezhovo ceramics (Markov, 1987).

*** Two similar images are found on the uniform from the Staro-Kumlyak settlement, where they are interpreted as "women's earrings in the form of crosses". The difference is only in size: on the Kirzhakul form, they are more miniature (8 × 6 mm versus 10×12 mm).

**** This fragment coincides with the above-mentioned negative of the old Kumlyak mold, intended for casting "earrings in the form of flowers".

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1967, pp. 278-279]. They are more ductile, although they are also refractory. Based on the assumption that these materials are used in everyday life (they are poorly represented in funerary monuments), a second version is constructed, which seems to be more thorough. The described products, cast in bronze, were quite massive and were used not as independent decorations,but as a stamp. The cladding technique is well documented in the Alakul and previous complexes [ Vinogradov, 1984; Gening V. F., Zdanovich, Gening V. V., 1992, fig. 82, 2; 153, 4; Kupriyanova, 2008]. Gold (or silver) foil easily takes the form of a base due to its high plasticity.

The absence of such decorations in archaeological collections is, in fact, an indirect argument - we do not know the criteria for selecting accessories for funerary costume*, as well as the degree of its similarity to everyday clothing. Products made of precious metals, due to their obvious high cost, had to be operated as carefully as possible and passed down from generation to generation, which dramatically reduced the risk of their loss by the carrier (and the probability of detection in archaeological materials). As for the functionality of the Kirzhakul form, its operation is directly confirmed in the form of traces of metal (copper ?)** preserved in the central recess of the "rosette" - a drop-shaped fragment with a size of 5-7 mk of a reddish-brown hue. However, unfortunately, even this cannot completely dispel doubts about the specific ways to use this part of the form. A fragment of metal could have been preserved when punching a through hole (a broken off tip of a thin tool). However, its interpretation cannot be completely excluded as a part of the rod designed to align the mold flaps during casting.

Conclusion

Summing up the brief analysis, it can be stated that the above facts indicate a much greater variety of jewelry used by the Alakul population of the Trans-Urals than is usually imagined. The researchers ' views on their composition are distorted by their a priori commitment to the thesis that the ritual (funeral) costume is completely (or almost completely) consistent with everyday clothing. One should not reject the possibility of a wider use of precious metals than is known from the materials of necropolises. This version of the explanation seems more plausible than the hypothesis about the experimental nature of the products (see above). The argument" for " should also be mythological thinking, which orients the master more to the reproduction of models than to creativity. A particular, but very vivid illustration of this is the example of hereditary gunsmiths and goldsmiths of the village of Kubachi: the attempts of engineer N. Baklanov to force the master to deviate seriously from the canon (in size or form) did not succeed, " so strong is the routine, so mechanical are the techniques of work learned from childhood..."[Chernykh, 2007, p. 118, 176-177].

A high degree of specialization in the Bronze Age does not seem like a stretch when it comes to jewelry art, technologically not inferior in complexity, for example, metallurgy. This is indicated by the skill of execution, the variety of techniques and a significant number of metal ornaments in necropolises (and partly on settlements). The rarity of jewelry molds in the materials of monuments may indicate their high value for the master, as well as a relatively small number of jewelers within the society.

Acknowledgements

I consider it a pleasant duty to mention D. Shageev, a student of the Techenskaya secondary school, who found the mold, and his teacher V. A. Kandaurov, who gave the find for state storage to the Chelyabinsk Regional Museum of Local Lore. In addition, N. B. Vinogradov (ChSPU) and Yu. P. Chemyakin (USU), who introduced me to unpublished analogs, V. V. Zaikov, A.M. Yuminov (Institute of Mineralogy of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences), who performed petrographic and other analyses, and A. G. Bersenev, who performed trace observations and photographing, helped me to study the artifact in word and deed. A. E. Grishin (IAET SB RAS), who drew my attention to the analog from the Tartas-1 burial ground, and N. I. Chuev, who assisted in mapping the monuments.

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Arkaim: U istokov tsivilizatsii [Arkaim: At the origins of civilization]. Chelyabinsk: Arkaim Publ., 2009, 224 p. (in Russian)

* It is enough to recall the example of the Feodorov monuments of the Trans-Urals, which do not contain bell-shaped earrings (Stefanov and Korochkova, 2006, p. 126), which are recognized as one of the main attributes of this group. On the other hand, they are widely distributed in the eastern Andronovo area (Avanesova, 1991, Fig. 43).

** Unfortunately, A. M. Yuminov (Institute of Mineralogy of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) performed only visual identification of a very small sample, which is deeply and firmly stuck in the rock base. Its extraction for analytical operations is possible only by partial destruction of the artifact.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 06.05.10.

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